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Beyond Gender Difference to a Theory of Care
Joan Tronto revisits Carol Gilligan’s interviews and Lawrence Kohlberg’s example of divorce to ask how social position shapes judgments and who draws the boundaries of care.
- Care Economy
- Gender Roles
- Political Consciousness
Sex and Death in the Rational World of Defense Intellectuals
Carol Cohn's fieldwork traces how U.S. nuclear strategists' euphemisms, sexualized metaphors, and domestic imagery make mass violence appear technical, controlled, and rational.
- Feminist Security Studies
- Militarism
- War and Peace
Doing Gender
This article proposes an understanding of gender as a routine accomplishment embedded in everyday interaction.
- Gender Socialization
- Gender Identity
- Feminist Theory
Mama’s Baby, Papa’s Maybe: An American Grammar Book
Spillers reads slavery’s naming and kinship relations against accounts that blame Black women for family disorder, asking how a person becomes a recognized subject.
- Black Feminism
- Body Politics
- Race and Gender
Playfulness, “World”-Travelling, and Loving Perception
Lugones connects playful travel between social worlds with loving perception, while refusing the demand to enter hostile worlds without protection.
- Race and Gender
- Gender Identity
- Political Consciousness
Gender: A Useful Category of Historical Analysis
Scott turns gender into a method for explaining power, connecting symbols, institutions, norms and identity while questioning historians’ own categories.
- Feminist Theory
- Historical Context
- Gender Studies
Learning from the Outsider Within
Learning from the Outsider Within: The Sociological Significance of Black Feminist ThoughtPatricia Hill Collins connects Black women’s marginal positioning to self-definition, interlocking oppression and the production of knowledge.
- Black Feminism
- Feminist Epistemology
- Race and Gender
A Cyborg Manifesto: Science, Technology, and Socialist-Feminism in the Late Twentieth Century
This influential essay reimagines feminist theory through the metaphor of the cyborg - a hybrid of machine and organism. Haraway critiques traditional boundaries between human and non-human, nature and culture, and proposes a post-gender, post-essentialist feminist politics rooted in affinity, irony, and technological embodiment.
- Socialist Feminism
- Postmodern Feminism
- Digital Feminism
When Yielding Is Not Consenting
Quand céder n’est pas consentirMathieu distinguishes yielding from consent, asking how work, fear and restricted knowledge shape women’s consciousness under domination.
- Feminist Theory
- Feminist Epistemology
- Patriarchy Critique
The Everyday Management of Two Lives
La gestion ordinaire de la vie en deuxMonique Haicault examines factory workers’ schedules, homes and families to show mental load as the coordination of conflicting institutions.
- Domestic Labor
- Work-Life Balance
- Sexual Division of Labor
The Master's Tools Will Never Dismantle the Master's House
This influential essay critiques exclusionary practices within the feminist movement, arguing that using the tools and methods of oppressive systems to fight oppression is doomed to fail. Lorde calls for recognizing and embracing difference as a source of strength, emphasizing that true liberation requires creating entirely new frameworks rather than seeking reform within existing power structures.
- Black Feminism
- Intersectional Feminism
- Decolonial Feminism
Racism and Sexism in Brazilian Culture
Racismo e sexismo na cultura brasileiraGonzalez connects carnival, domestic labor and language to ask how Brazil celebrates Black women’s cultural contributions while denying their authority.
- Black Feminism
- Intersectional Feminism
- Domestic Labor
Thinking Sex: Notes for a Radical Theory of the Politics of Sexuality
Rubin examines sexual hierarchy, moral panic and the distinction between gender and sexuality; this reading also confronts the limits of her treatment of age.
- Sexuality
- Queer Theory
- Body Politics
Under Western Eyes: Feminist Scholarship and Colonial Discourses
This groundbreaking article critiques Western feminism's discursive construction of 'Third World women,' revealing colonialist tendencies in feminist scholarship. Mohanty demonstrates how Western feminism homogenizes non-Western women as victims, ignoring their agency and diversity, laying the foundation for transnational and decolonial feminist theory.
- Postcolonial Feminism
- Third World Feminism
- Transnational Feminism
The Feminist Standpoint: Developing the Ground for a Specifically Feminist Historical Materialism
This foundational chapter develops the concept of the feminist standpoint by integrating Marxist theory with feminist epistemology. Hartsock argues that women's experiences - particularly in domestic labor and social reproduction - offer a privileged epistemic position from which to critique dominant knowledge systems and capitalist structures.
- Marxist Feminism
- Epistemic Colonialism Critique
- Domestic Labor
One Is Not Born a Woman
On ne naît pas femmeWittig distinguishes women as a social class from the myth of Woman and reads marriage, housework and childbearing through the challenge of lesbian existence.
- Marxist Feminism
- Lesbian Feminism
- Feminist Theory
Compulsory Heterosexuality and Lesbian Existence
This paper challenges the assumption that heterosexuality is the 'natural' sexual orientation for women, arguing that heterosexuality is a political institution imposed upon women.
- Radical Feminism
- Patriarchy Critique
- Sexual Liberation
Throwing Like a Girl: A Phenomenology of Feminine Body Comportment Motility and Spatiality
This groundbreaking 1980 essay analyzes the particularity of feminine bodily experience through a phenomenological lens. Young combines Merleau-Ponty's phenomenology of the body with de Beauvoir's existentialist feminism to explore how patriarchal society shapes women's bodily comportment, movement patterns, and spatial perception, revealing how gendered bodily experience limits women's agency and self-realization.
- Phenomenological Feminism
- Body Politics
- Gender Socialization
Hands, Tools and Weapons
Les Mains, les outils, les armesPaola Tabet examines how unequal control of tools organizes gendered labor, technical authority and dependence.
- Sexual Division of Labor
- Feminist Theory
- Technology Critique
Power and the Idea of Nature (1): The Appropriation of Women
Pratique du pouvoir et idée de Nature (1) : L’appropriation des femmesGuillaumin distinguishes buying labor power from appropriating a person, asking why women’s time, bodies and care are treated as endlessly available.
- Feminist Theory
- Domestic Labor
- Body Politics
Men Workers = Women Workers?
Ouvriers = ouvrières ? Propositions pour une articulation théorique de deux variables : sexe et classe socialeDanièle Kergoat uses line speeds, skill grades and a dispute over working hours to show how gender organizes pay, job mobility and resistance within the French industrial working class.
- Sexual Division of Labor
- Class Analysis
- Marxist Feminism
The Laugh of the Medusa
Le Rire de la MéduseThis groundbreaking 1975 essay introduces the concept of 'écriture féminine' (feminine writing), calling for women to reclaim their bodies and desires through writing. Cixous reinterprets the myth of Medusa, transforming her from a monstrous figure into a symbol of feminine power and creativity, challenging patriarchal language systems and advocating for the revolutionary potential of women's writing.
- Postmodern Feminism
- Feminist Literary Criticism
- Women's Writing
Visual Pleasure and Narrative Cinema
In this seminal essay, Laura Mulvey introduces psychoanalytic theory to film criticism, coining the concept of the 'Male Gaze' to reveal how classical Hollywood cinema constructs images of women around male visual pleasure.
- Feminist Film Criticism
- Patriarchy Critique
- Media Representation Critique
The Traffic in Women: Notes on the 'Political Economy' of Sex
This paper proposes the groundbreaking concept of the 'sex/gender system' to analyze the social origins of women's oppression through a critical synthesis of Marxism, structural anthropology, and psychoanalytic theory.
- Marxist Feminism
- Patriarchy Critique
- Capitalism Critique